Aerospace engineering is the primary field of engineering concerned with the development of aircraft and spacecraft. It has two major and overlapping branches: aeronautical engineering and astronautical engineering. Avionics engineering is similar, but deals with the electrical side of aerospace engineering.

Aeronautical engineering was the original term for the field. As flight technology advanced to include craft operating in outer space (astronautics), the broader term "aerospace engineering" has largely replaced it in common usage. Aerospace engineering, particularly the astronautics branch, is often colloquially referred to as "rocket science".

Overview

Flight vehicles are subjected to demanding conditions such as those produced by changes in atmospheric pressure and temperature, with structural loads applied upon vehicle components. Consequently, they are usually the products of various technological and engineering disciplines including aerodynamics, propulsion, avionics, materials science, structural analysis and manufacturing. The interaction between these technologies is known as aerospace engineering. Because of the complexity and number of disciplines involved, aerospace engineering is carried out by teams of engineers, each having their own specialized area of expertise.

History

The origin of aerospace engineering can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around the late 19th to early 20th centuries, although the work of Sir George Cayley dates from the last decade of the 18th to mid-19th century. One of the most important people in the history of aeronautics, Cayley was a pioneer in aeronautical engineering and is credited as the first person to separate the forces of lift and drag, which are in effect on any flight vehicle. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering. Scientists understood some key elements of aerospace engineering, like fluid dynamics, in the 18th century. Many years later after the successful flights by the Wright brothers, the 1910s saw the development of aeronautical engineering through the design of World War I military aircraft.

The first definition of aerospace engineering appeared in February 1958. The definition considered the Earth's atmosphere and the outer space as a single realm, thereby encompassing both aircraft (aero) and spacecraft (space) under a newly coined word aerospace. In response to the USSR launching the first satellite, Sputnik into space on October 4, 1957, U.S. aerospace engineers launched the first American satellite on January 31, 1958. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration was founded in 1958 as a response to the Cold War.

Elements

Some of the elements of aerospace engineering are:

• Radar cross-section â€" the study of vehicle signature apparent to Radar remote sensing.
• Fluid mechanics â€" the study of fluid flow around objects. Specifically aerodynamics concerning the flow of air over bodies such as wings or through objects such as wind tunnels (see also lift and aeronautics).
• Astrodynamics â€" the study of orbital mechanics including prediction of orbital elements when given a select few variables. While few schools in the United States teach this at the undergraduate level, several have graduate programs covering this topic (usually in conjunction with the Physics department of said college or university).
• Statics and Dynamics (engineering mechanics) â€" the study of movement, forces, moments in mechanical systems.
• Mathematics â€" in particular, calculus, differential equations, and linear algebra.
• Electrotechnology â€" the study of electronics within engineering.
• Propulsion â€" the energy to move a vehicle through the air (or in outer space) is provided by internal combustion engines, jet engines and turbomachinery, or rockets (see also propeller and spacecraft propulsion). A more recent addition to this module is electric propulsion and ion propulsion.
• Control engineering â€" the study of mathematical modeling of the dynamic behavior of systems and designing them, usually using feedback signals, so that their dynamic behavior is desirable (stable, without large excursions, with minimum error). This applies to the dynamic behavior of aircraft, spacecraft, propulsion systems, and subsystems that exist on aerospace vehicles.
• Aircraft structures â€" design of the physical configuration of the craft to withstand the forces encountered during flight. Aerospace engineering aims to keep structures lightweight and low-cost, while maintaining structural integrity.
• Materials science â€" related to structures, aerospace engineering also studies the materials of which the aerospace structures are to be built. New materials with very specific properties are invented, or existing ones are modified to improve their performance.
• Solid mechanics â€" Closely related to material science is solid mechanics which deals with stress and strain analysis of the components of the vehicle. Nowadays there are several Finite Element programs such as MSC Patran/Nastran which aid engineers in the analytical process.
• Aeroelasticity â€" the interaction of aerodynamic forces and structural flexibility, potentially causing flutter, divergence, etc.
• Avionics â€" the design and programming of computer systems on board an aircraft or spacecraft and the simulation of systems.
• Software â€" the specification, design, development, test, and implementation of computer software for aerospace applications, including flight software, ground control software, test & evaluation software, etc.
• Risk and reliability â€" the study of risk and reliability assessment techniques and the mathematics involved in the quantitative methods.
• Noise control â€" the study of the mechanics of sound transfer.
• Aeroacoustics â€" the study of noise generation via either turbulent fluid motion or aerodynamic forces interacting with surfaces.
• Flight test â€" designing and executing flight test programs in order to gather and analyze performance and handling qualities data in order to determine if an aircraft meets its design and performance goals and certification requirements.

The basis of most of these elements lies in theoretical physics, such as fluid dynamics for aerodynamics or the equations of motion for flight dynamics. There is also a large empirical component. Historically, this empirical component was derived from testing of scale models and prototypes, either in wind tunnels or in the free atmosphere. More recently, advances in computing have enabled the use of computational fluid dynamics to simulate the behavior of fluid, reducing time and expense spent on wind-tunnel testing. Those studying hydrodynamics or Hydroacoustics often obtained degrees in Aerospace Engineering.

Additionally, aerospace engineering addresses the integration of all components that constitute an aerospace vehicle (subsystems including power, aerospace bearings, communications, thermal control, life support, etc.) and its life cycle (design, temperature, pressure, radiation, velocity, lifetime).

Degree programs

Aerospace engineering may be studied at the advanced diploma, bachelor's, master's, and Ph.D. levels in aerospace engineering departments at many universities, and in mechanical engineering departments at others. A few departments offer degrees in space-focused astronautical engineering. Some institutions differentiate between aeronautical and astronautical engineering. Graduate degrees are offered in advanced or specialty areas for the aerospace industry.

A background in chemistry, physics, computer science and mathematics is important for students pursuing an aerospace engineering degree.

In popular culture

The term "rocket scientist" is sometimes used to describe a person of great intelligence since "rocket science" is seen as a practice requiring great mental ability, especially technical and mathematical ability. The term is used ironically in the expression "It's not rocket science" to indicate that a task is simple. Strictly speaking, the use of "science" in "rocket science" is a misnomer since science is about understanding the origins, nature, and behavior of the universe; engineering is about using scientific and engineering principles to solve problems and develop new technology. However, the media and the public often use "science" and "engineering" as synonyms.

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Lockheed Martin (NYSE: LMT) is an American global aerospace, defense, security and advanced technologies company with worldwide interests. It was formed by the merger of Lockheed Corporation with Martin Marietta in March 1995. It is headquartered in Bethesda, Maryland, in the Washington, DC, area. Lockheed Martin employs 126,000 people worldwide. Marillyn Hewson is the current President and Chief Executive Officer.

Lockheed Martin is one of the largest companies in the aerospace, defense, security, and technologies industry. It is the world's largest defense contractor based on revenue for fiscal year 2014. In 2013, 78% of Lockheed Martin's revenues came from military sales; it topped the list of US federal government contractors and received nearly 10% of the funds paid out by the Pentagon. In 2009 US government contracts accounted for $38.4 billion (85%), foreign government contracts $5.8 billion (13%), and commercial and other contracts for $900 million (2%).

Lockheed Martin operates in five business segments: Aeronautics, Information Systems & Global Solutions, Missiles and Fire Control, Rotary and Mission Systems, and Space Systems. The company has received the Collier Trophy six times, including in 2001 for being part of developing the X-35/F-35B LiftFan Propulsion System, and most recently in 2006 for leading the team that developed the F-22 Raptor fighter jet. Lockheed Martin is currently developing the F-35 Lightning II and leads the international supply chain, leads the team for the development and implementation of technology solutions for the new USAF Space Fence (AFSSS replacement), and is the primary contractor for the development of the Orion (spacecraft) command module. The company also invests in healthcare systems, renewable energy systems, intelligent energy distribution and compact nuclear fusion.

History

1990s

Merger talks between Lockheed Corporation and Martin Marietta began in March 1994, with the companies announcing their $10 billion planned merger on August 30, 1994. The deal was finalized on March 15, 1995, when the two companies' shareholders approved the merger. The segments of the two companies not retained by the new company formed the basis for the present L-3 Communications, a mid-size defense contractor in its own right. Lockheed Martin also later spun off the materials company Martin Marietta Materials.

Both companies contributed important products to the new portfolio. Lockheed products included the Trident missile, P-3 Orion, F-16 Fighting Falcon, F-22 Raptor, C-130 Hercules, A-4AR Fightinghawk and the DSCS-3 satellite. Martin Marietta products included Titan rockets, Sandia National Laboratories (management contract acquired in 1993), Space Shuttle External Tank, Viking 1 and Viking 2 landers, the Transfer Orbit Stage (under subcontract to Orbital Sciences Corporation) and various satellite models.

On April 22, 1996, Lockheed Martin completed the acquisition of Loral Corporation's defense electronics and system integration businesses for $9.1 billion, the deal having been announced in January. The remainder of Loral became Loral Space & Communications. Lockheed Martin abandoned plans for a $8.3 billion merger with Northrop Grumman on July 16, 1998, due to government concerns over the potential strength of the new group; Lockheed/Northrop would have had control of 25% of the Department of Defense's procurement budget.

For the Mars Climate Orbiter, Lockheed Martin incorrectly provided NASA with software using measurements in US Customary force units when metric was expected; this resulted in the loss of the Orbiter at a cost of $125 million. The development of the spacecraft cost $193.1 million.

2000s

In May 2001, Lockheed Martin sold Lockheed Martin Control Systems to BAE Systems. On November 27, 2000, Lockheed completed the sale of its Aerospace Electronic Systems business to BAE Systems for $1.67 billion, a deal announced in July 2000. This group encompassed Sanders Associates, Fairchild Systems, and Lockheed Martin Space Electronics & Communications. In 2001, Lockheed Martin won the contract to build the F-35 Lightning II; this was the largest fighter aircraft procurement project since the F-16, with an initial order of 3,000 aircraft. In 2001, Lockheed Martin settled a nineâ€"year investigation conducted by NASA's Office of Inspector General with the assistance of the Defense Contract Audit Agency. The company paid the United States government $7.1 million based on allegations that its predecessor, Lockheed Engineering Science Corporation, submitted false lease costs claims to NASA.

On May 12, 2006, The Washington Post reported that when Robert Stevens took control of Lockheed Martin in 2004, he faced the dilemma that within 10 years, 100,000 of the about 130,000 Lockheed Martin employees â€" more than three-quarters â€" would be retiring. On August 31, 2006, Lockheed Martin won a $3.9 billion contract from NASA to design and build the CEV capsule, later named Orion for the Ares I rocket in the Constellation Program. In 2009, NASA reduced the capsule crew requirements from the initial six seats to four for transport to the International Space Station.

On August 13, 2008, Lockheed Martin acquired the government business unit of Nantero, Inc., a company that had developed methods and processes for incorporating carbon nanotubes in next-generation electronic devices. In 2009, Lockheed Martin bought Unitech.

2010s

On November 18, 2010, Lockheed Martin announced that it would be closing its Eagan, Minnesota location by 2013 to reduce costs and optimize capacity at its locations nationwide. In January 2011, Lockheed Martin agreed to pay the US Government $2 million to settle allegations that the company submitted false claims on a U.S. government contract for that amount. The allegations came from a contract with the Naval Oceanographic Office Major Shared Resource Center in Mississippi. On May 25, 2011 Lockheed Martin bought the first Quantum Computing System from D-Wave Systems. Lockheed Martin and D-Wave will collaborate to realize the benefits of a computing platform based upon a quantum annealing processor, as applied to some of Lockheed Martin's most challenging computation problems. Lockheed Martin established a multi-year contract that includes one system, maintenance and services. Potentially an important milestone for both companies.

On May 28, 2011 it was reported that a cyber-attack using previously stolen EMC files had broken through to sensitive materials at the contractor. It is unclear if the Lockheed incident is the specific prompt whereby on June 1, 2011, the new United States military strategy, makes explicit that a cyberattack is casus belli for a traditional act of war.

On July 10, 2012, Lockheed Martin announced it was cutting its workforce by 740 workers to reduce costs and remain competitive as necessary for future growth. On August 2, 2012, the Vice President for Business Development, George Standridge stated that his company has offered 6 more C-130J aircraft to the Indian Air Force, for which discussions are underway with the Indian Government. On November 27, 2012, Lockheed Martin announced that Marillyn Hewson will become the corporation's chief executive officer on January 1, 2013.

On January 7, 2013, Lockheed Martin Canada announced that it will be acquiring the engine maintenance, repair and overhaul assets from Aveos Fleet Performance in Montreal, Canada. On July 3, 2013, Lockheed Martin announced that it was partnering with DreamHammer to use the company's software for integrated command and control of its unmanned aerial vehicles. Lockheed Martin teamed up with Bell Helicopter to propose the V-280 Valor tiltrotor for the Future Vertical Lift (FVL) program. In September 2013, Lockheed Martin acquired the Scotland-based tech firm, Amor Group, saying the deal would aid its plans to expand internationally and into non-defence markets. On November 14, 2013, Lockheed announced they would be closing their Akron, Ohio facility laying off 500 employees and transferring other employees to other locations.

In March 2014, Lockheed Martin acquired Beontra AG, a provider of integrated planning and demand forecasting tools for airport, planning to expand their business in commercial airport information technology solutions. Also in March 2014, Lockheed Martin announced its acquisition of Industrial Defender Inc. On June 2, 2014 Lockheed Martin received a Pentagon contract to build a space fence that would track debris, keeping it from damaging satellites and spacecrafts. In September 2014, Lockheed agreed a deal to sell 40 F-35 fighter jets to South Korea for delivery between 2018 and 2021, for a fee in the region of $7.06 billion.

On July 20, 2015, Lockheed Martin announced plans to purchase Sikorsky Aircraft from United Technologies Corporation at a cost of $7.1 billion. The Pentagon has criticized the acquisition as causing a reduction in competition. In November 2015, the acquisition received final approval from the Chinese government, with a total cost of $9 billion. Dan Schulz was named the president of Lockheed Martin's Sikorsky company. Lockheed Martin has shown sketches for a twin-engine, blended wing body strategic airlifter similar in size to the C-5. On March 31, 2015, the US Navy awarded Lockheed Martin a contract worth $362 million for construction of Freedom-class ship LCS 21 and $79 million for advanced procurement for LCS 23. The Freedom-class ships are built by Fincantieri Marinette Marine in Marinette, Wisconsin. In December 2015, Lockheed won a $867 million seven-year contract to train Australia’s next generation of military pilots. There is also an option in the deal to extend this con tract across 26 years which would greatly increase the deal’s value.

In August 2016, Canadian Forces Maritime tested an integrated submarine combat system developed by Lockheed Martin. The test marked Canada’s first use of the combat system with the MK 48 heavyweight torpedo, variant 7AT.

Corruption investigations

On March 3, 2012, the U.S. Justice Department said that Lockheed Martin had agreed to settle allegations that the defense contractor had sold overpriced perishable tools used on many contracts. The DoJ said the allegations were based specifically on the subsidiary Tools & Metals Inc's inflation of costs between 1998 and 2005, which Lockheed Martin then passed on to the U.S. government under its contracts. Further, in March 2006, Todd B. Loftis, a former TMI president, was sentenced to 87 months in prison and ordered to pay a fine of $20 million following his guilty plea.

On February 20, 2013, Lockheed Martin Corp complied with the U.S. District Court in New York, agreeing to pay a $19.5 million lawsuit to conclude a securities fraud class-action legal battle that had accused the company of deceiving shareholders in regards to expectations for the company's information technology division.

On December 20, 2014, Lockheed Martin Integrated Systems agreed to settle a False Claims Act lawsuit paying $27.5 million to finalize allegations that it had knowingly overbilled the taxpayer for work performed by company staff who did not hold the relevant, essential qualifications for the contract.

Criticism

In 2013, Lt. Gen. Christopher Bogdan criticized the company's F-35 fighter jet program. The general said: "I want them both to start behaving like they want to be around for 40 years...I want them to take on some of the risk of this program. I want them to invest in cost reductions. I want them to do the things that will build a better relationship. I'm not getting all that love yet." The criticism comes in the wake of previous criticism from former Defense Secretary Robert Gates regarding the same program.

Organization

Advanced design and development division

• Skunk Works

Aeronautics

• Lockheed Martin Aeronautics

Missiles and Fire Control

• Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control

Rotary and Mission Systems

• Lockheed Martin Rotary and Mission Systems (formerly Mission Systems and Sensors, and then Mission Systems & Training)
• Sikorsky Aircraft

Space

• Lockheed Martin Space Systems
• Sandia Corporation

Others

• Lockheed Martin Canada
• Lockheed Martin Australia
• Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Laboratories
• LMC Properties
• Lockheed Martin Enterprise Business Services
• Lockheed Martin Finance Corporation
• Lockheed Martin U.K.
• SIM Industries â€" a Lockheed Martin company

Joint ventures

• International Launch Services (with Khrunichev, RSC Energia)
• Lockheed Martin Alenia Tactical Transport Systems (with Alenia Aeronautica), now folded
• MEADS International (with EADS and MBDA)
• Space Imaging (46%, remainder public)
• United Launch Alliance (with Boeing)
• Longbow LLC (with Northrop Grumman)
• United Space Alliance (with Boeing)
• Kelly Aviation Center (with GE and Rolls-Royce)
• Protector USV â€" an unmanned surface vehicle (with Rafael Advanced Defense Systems and BAE Systems)
• Defense Support Services (DS2) with Day & Zimmermann
• Tata Lockheed Martin Aerostructures Limited (with Indian company Tata Advanced Systems Limited)
• Advanced Military Maintenance Repair and Overhaul Center (AMMROC) (with Mubadala)

Divested

• PAE (Pacific Architects and Engineers) Holding, Inc

Government contracts

Lockheed Martin received $36 billion in government contracts in 2008 alone, more than any company in history. It does work for more than two dozen government agencies from the Department of Defense and the Department of Energy to the Department of Agriculture and the Environmental Protection Agency. It's involved in surveillance and information processing for the CIA, the FBI, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), the National Security Agency (NSA), The Pentagon, the Census Bureau and the Postal Service."

In October 2013, Lockheed announced it expected to finalise a $2.2 billion contract with the United States Air Force for two advanced military communications satellites.

Corporate governance

Board of directors

The board of directors consists of 14 members. As of February 2016, members include:

• Daniel Akerson (since 2014)
• Nolan Archibald (since 2002)
• Rosalind Brewer (since 2011)
• David Burritt (since 2008)
• Bruce Carlson (since 2015)
• James Ellis (since 2004)
• Thomas Falk (since 2010)
• Marilyn Hewson
• Gwendolyn King (since 1995)
• James Loy (since 2005)
• Joseph Ralston (since 2003)
• Anne Stevens (since 2002)

Chief executive officer

• Norman Augustine (1995-1997)
• Vance Coffman (1997-2004)
• Robert J. Stevens (2004â€"2012)
• Marillyn Hewson (2013â€")

Chairman of the board

• Robert J. Stevens (2005-2013)
• Marillyn Hewson (2014â€")

Criticism

Lockheed Martin is listed as the largest U.S. government contractor and "ranks third for number of incidents, and twenty-first for size of settlements on the 'contractor misconduct' database maintained by the Project on Government Oversight, a Washington, D.C.-based watchdog group." Since 1995, the company has agreed to pay $606 million to settle 59 instances of misconduct.

Lobbying

According to the magazine Politico, Lockheed Martin has "a political network that is already the envy of its competitors", and its contracts enjoy wide bipartisan support in the U.S. Congress thanks to it having "perfected the strategy of spreading jobs on weapons programs in key states and congressional districts". The company's 2010 lobbying expenditure by the third quarter was $9.9 million (2009 total: $13.7 million).

Through its political action committee (PAC), the company provides low levels of financial support to candidates who advocate national defense and relevant business issues. It is "the top contributor to the incoming House Armed Services Committee chairman, Republican Buck McKeon of California, giving more than $50,000 in the most recent election cycle. It also topped the list of donors to Sen. Daniel Inouye (D-HI), the chair of the Senate Appropriations Committee before his death in 2012."

Lockheed Martin Employees Political Action Committee is one of the 50 largest in the country, according to FEC data. With contributions from 3,000 employees, it donates $500,000 a year to about 260 House and Senate candidates. For the 2004 election cycle, Lockheed's PAC contributed $350,279 to federal candidates, with about 62 percent going to Republicans, according to the Center for Responsive Politics. That compares with $515,000 from General Dynamics' political action committee and $122,850 from BAE Systems North America, the center's data showed.

Management

Senior management consists of the CEO, COO and CFO, and Executive Vice Presidents (EVP) of five business areas. The EVPs are responsible for managing major programs.

Employees in each program are organized into four tiers: Tier1 â€"Program Manager/VP, Tier2-Functional Teams (Finance, Chief Engineer, Quality, Operations, etc.), Tier3-Integrated Product Teams (IPTs) (Weapon System Development, Weapon System Integration, etc.), and Tier4-detailed product development. Floor or touch workers belong to component assembly teams. Lockheed Martin manages and maintains its relationship with these touch workers through its supervisors and unions.

Lockheed Martin manages employees through its Full Spectrum Leadership and LM21 programs. The LM21 program relies on Six Sigma principles, which are techniques to improve efficiency. Senior management constructs leadership councils and assigns managers to facilitate Kaizen events, which target specific processes for improvement. A manager facilitates teams and processes stakeholders and suppliers to streamline process implementation.

Tier2 Functional Leads and Tier3 IPT Leads report to Tier1. IPT leads are responsible for entire systems or products defined by the contract’s Statement of Work.

To control quality, Lockheed Martin trains and builds IPT teams. and ensures that work is executed correctly through a Technical Performance Measure (TPM) system which emphasizes its Lean and 6 Sigma processes. Middle management uses commitment mechanisms that parallel high commitment and human relations theory.

Floor employees assemble aircraft using Flow-to-takt lean manufacturing process which uses properties from both division of labor and scientific management. By separating tasks based on parts, Lockheed Martin utilizes the division of labor theory, specialization on a specific area creates efficiency.

Double Helix methodology

The Double Helix methodology is a systems development methodology used by Lockheed Martin. It combines experimentation, technology, and a warfighter's concept of operations to create new tactics and weapons.

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Cytec Industries Incorporated, based in Woodland Park, New Jersey is a speciality chemicals and materials technology company with pro-forma sales in 2004, including the Surface Specialties acquisition, of approximately $3.0 billion. Cytec is a result of its spin-off from American Cyanamid Company. It makes resins, plastics, and composite materials, especially for the aerospace industry and other users of specialty materials. It was listed in NYSE with stock symbol "CYT".

Cytec currently has about 3,600 employees in Europe, North and South America, Asia and Australia.

In July 2015, Solvay announced its intent to acquire Cytec for a purchase price of US$5.5 billion. In December 2015, Solvay successfully completed its acquisition of Cytec. Financing consists of the issuance of around €4.7 billion senior and hybrid bonds and the ongoing €1.5 billion right issue.

References

External links

• "CYTEC Industries". Retrieved 2005-12-21. 
• "CYTEC Industries At A Glance". Retrieved 2013-12-10. 

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Cytec Industries Incorporated, based in Woodland Park, New Jersey is a speciality chemicals and materials technology company with pro-forma sales in 2004, including the Surface Specialties acquisition, of approximately $3.0 billion. Cytec is a result of its spin-off from American Cyanamid Company. It makes resins, plastics, and composite materials, especially for the aerospace industry and other users of specialty materials. It was listed in NYSE with stock symbol "CYT".

Cytec currently has about 3,600 employees in Europe, North and South America, Asia and Australia.

In July 2015, Solvay announced its intent to acquire Cytec for a purchase price of US$5.5 billion. In December 2015, Solvay successfully completed its acquisition of Cytec. Financing consists of the issuance of around €4.7 billion senior and hybrid bonds and the ongoing €1.5 billion right issue.

References

External links

• "CYTEC Industries". Retrieved 2005-12-21. 
• "CYTEC Industries At A Glance". Retrieved 2013-12-10. 

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L3 Technologies, formerly L-3 Communications Holdings, is an American company that supplies command and control, communications, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (C3ISR) systems and products, avionics, ocean products, training devices and services, instrumentation, space, and navigation products. Its customers include the Department of Defense, Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Government intelligence agencies, NASA, aerospace contractors and commercial telecommunications and wireless customers.

L3 is headquartered in Murray Hill, Manhattan, New York City.

History

L3 was formed as L-3 Communications in 1997 to acquire certain business units from Lockheed Martin that had previously been part of Loral Corporation. These units had belonged to Lockheed Corporation and Martin Marietta, which had merged three years before in 1993. The company was founded by (and named for) Frank Lanza and Robert LaPenta in partnership with Lehman Brothers. Lanza and LaPenta had both served as executives at Loral and Lockheed.

L3 continued to expand through mergers and acquisitions to become one of the top ten U.S. government contractors.

On November 4, 2010 L3 issued a part purge notification to prevent future use of Chinese counterfeit parts, but did not notify its customers whose display systems suffered from much higher than expected failure rates.

Acquisitions

1997

• Paramax Systems Corporation from Lockheed Martin. Loral had acquired Paramax in 1995

2000

• Training & Simulation Division of Raytheon Systems Co., based in Arlington, Texas. This company was formerly known as Hughes Training, Inc., and part of the Hughes Aircraft Defense Group purchased by Raytheon from General Motors two years earlier. The division traces its ancestry to the original company formed by Edwin Link, inventor of the airplane simulator, and accordingly was renamed Link Simulation and Training.

2001

• Litton Electron Devices from Northrup Grumman (renamed L3 Electron Devices)

2002

• Raytheon Aircraft Integration Systems (renamed L3 Integrated Systems, now known as L3 Mission Integration Division)
• SyColeman Corporation, which came about from the joining of Sy Technologies and Coleman Research Corporation.
• PerkinElmer Detection Systems from PerkinElmer which became L-3 Security & Detection Systems.

2003

• Ship Analytics, Inc.

2005

• Titan Corp., after a failed buyout attempt by Lockheed Martin.
• L-3 Communication Combat Propulsion Systems, previously owned by General Dynamics Land Systems.
• L-3 Communications MAPPS, previously CAE's Marine Controls unit
• Electron Dynamic Devices from Boeing Satellite Systems.
• Applied Signal & Image Technology, Linthicum Heights, MD. Geo-location systems for RF emitters.

2006

• Advanced System Architectures, a company based in Fleet, Hampshire, United Kingdom. L-3 ASA has core capabilities in the development and through-life management of complex information systems, data fusion and tracking solutions, and interoperable secure communications systems.
• Crestview Aerospace, a company based in northwest Florida. Crestview Aerospace provides aircraft structures, major airframe assemblies, and military aircraft modifications for leading prime contractors and OEMs in the aerospace industry.
• Nautronix and MariPro, based in Fremantle, Australia and Santa Barbara, California, respectively, from Nautronix Plc in Aberdeen, Scotland. Nautronix and MariPro provide acoustic ranges and hydrographics to commercial and defense markets.
• TRL Technology, a specialist defense electronics company based in Gloucestershire, United Kingdom. TRL Technology is internationally known for development and innovation in the fields of interception, surveillance, electronic warfare, and communications.

2010

• Insight Technologies, a company based in Londonderry, New Hampshire. Insight develops and builds optics, from night-vision goggles to weapon-mounted sights and lasers.

2012

• Thales Training and Simulation (partial), a multinational company which manufactures civil and military full flight simulators and provides related training and support services - a wholly owned subsidiary of the Thales Group. In August 2012 L-3 acquired Thales Group's civil fixed-wing flight simulation business, to form L-3 Link Simulation & Training UK.

2015

• CTC Aviation Limited, a company based in Southampton providing training and resourcing to many international airlines, most notably through its 'CTC Wings' ab-initio flight training program which successfully places many cadets within a vast network of partner airlines. As well as providing MPL courses for airlines such as Qatar Airlines, easyJet and Flybe, CTC Aviation also trains pilots on the British Airways Future Pilot Program. The aviation academy has a 98% employment rate with various airlines including Ryanair, FlyBe and many more. CTC also has locations in Hamilton, New Zealand, Phoenix, Arizona and Gatwick Airport in London.

2016

• MacDonald Humfrey (Automation), a Luton, UK based checkpoint security and automation company.

Business organization

As of 2016, L3 is organized under three business segments:

• Electronic Systems
  • Advanced Programs
  • Aviation Products and Security
  • Integrated Sensor Systems
  • Power and Propulsion Systems
  • Precision Engagement and Training
  • Warrior Systems
• Aerospace Systems
  • Aircraft Systems
  • ISR Systems
  • MAS
  • Vertex Aerospace
• Communication Systems
  • Advanced Communications
  • Broadband Communications
  • Space and Power
  • Tactical SATCOM

Management

Frank Lanza, CEO and co-founder, died on June 7, 2006. CFO Michael T. Strianese was named as interim CEO, and was appointed Chairman, President and CEO of the company on October 23, 2006.

Naming

L3 Technologies was originally named L-3 Communications for the last initials of its founders Frank Lanza, Robert LaPenta, and Lehman Brothers. Despite the similarity in naming, there is no corporate connection between L3 Technologies, formerly known as L-3 Communications, and networking provider Level 3 Communications, whose name is often abbreviated "L3" in informal industry communication.

On 31 December 2016, L3's company name changed from L-3 Communications Holdings, Inc. to L3 Technologies, Inc. to better reflect the company's wider focus since its founding in 1997. The company's website changed from L-3com.com to L3T.com, but the company's NYSE ticker symbol of LLL remained the same.

Products

• L-3 ProVision, Millimeter Wave Airport Passenger Screening System
• L-3 eXaminer SX, 3DX, and XLB, Airport baggage scanning systems
• L-3 OptEX, Trace level explosive detection system
• AVCATT, a mobile aviation training simulator
• Orchid, Total Development & Simulation Environment (Power, Marine)
• EOTech, Holographic weapon sights
• L-3 Sonoma EO, Electro Optical Imaging Systems, 1508M Dragon Eyes, 1205MD, 2111X, 2514X, & 2711G

EOTech Defective Holographic Sights Lawsuit

In 2015, L3 Technologies agreed to pay $25.6 million to settle a lawsuit with the U.S. Government. L3 was accused of knowingly providing the U.S. military with optics that failed in extreme temperatures and humid weather conditions. These sights were provided to infantry and special operations forces operating in Afghanistan and Iraq, as well as civilians and law enforcement.

The civil fraud lawsuit was filed by Preet Bharara, in the Southern District of New York. The lawsuit alleged L3 officials have known since 2006 that the holographic sights being sent to Iraq and Afghanistan failed to perform as advertised in extreme temperature ranges. The lawsuit alleges that the FBI independently discovered the thermal drift defect in March 2015 and presented EOTech with "the very same findings that the company had documented internally for years. Shortly thereafter, EOTech finally disclosed the thermal drift defect to DoD." According to court documents, EOTech had advertised that its sights performed in temperatures ranging from -40 degrees to 140 degrees Fahrenheit, and in humid conditions.

In temperature extremes the sights exhibited thermal drift, which is when the sight's point of aim differed from its point of impact.|

John Bailey, director of marketing at EOtech said,

Thermal drift is basically when you go from ambient temperature to temperature extreme there is going to be a point of impact shift...We have realized that our sight could shift … in those extremes, -40 and 122 Fahrenheit.

The sights also suffered from reticle fading and parallax.

Federal contract suspension

In 2010 it was announced that L3's Special Support Programs Division had been suspended by the United States Air Force from doing any contract work for the US federal government. A US Department of Defense investigation had reportedly found that the company had, "used a highly sensitive government computer network to collect competitive business information for its own use." A US federal criminal investigation ended the temporary suspension on July 27, 2010.

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Gulfstream Aerospace Corporation is an American wholly owned subsidiary of General Dynamics. Gulfstream designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and services business jet aircraft. Gulfstream has produced more than 2,000 aircraft since 1958. Gulfstream's range consists of the G280, G350, G450, G500, G550, G600, and G650.

History

Origins

The company that evolved into Gulfstream Aerospace Corp. started in the late 1950s when Grumman Aircraft Engineering Co., known for military aircraft production, developed a business aircraft at its facilities in Bethpage, N.Y., called the Grumman Gulfstream I (G-I). The G-I could seat 12 passengers, had a maximum speed of 350 mph (560 km/h) at 25,000 feet (7,620 m) and a range of 2,200 miles (3,540 km). The new aircraft, the first of its kind designed for business travel, was a success, prompting Grumman to develop the jet-powered Grumman Gulfstream II or GII.

1960s

At the start of the GII program, Grumman officials separated the company’s civil and military aircraft production to improve efficiency. In 1966, they relocated the civilian component to Savannah, Georgia where they found a supply of skilled labor, an airfield adjacent to the plant and room for expansion. Transportation facilities suitable for heavy equipment and machinery as well as weather favorable to year-round flight-testing and flight-training operations enhanced Savannah’s appeal. The new building opened in June 1967 and was dedicated on September 29, 1967. It housed production and flight testing for the GII. The 100-person work force that built the GII was 90% local, and grew to over 1,700 within a few years.

1970s

In 1972, Grumman merged with light-aircraft manufacturer American Aviation Corp. The 256th and final GII delivery took place in 1977. One year later, the Gulfstream line and the Savannah plant were sold to American Jet Industries, which was headed by entrepreneur Allen Paulson. Paulson became the president and CEO of the company, renaming it Gulfstream American. He made a priority of developing the Gulfstream III, a new aircraft designed to achieve greater range and speed than the GII. The GIII made its first flight in December 1979, with the first delivery in 1980. It was the first business jet to fly over both poles.

1980s

In 1981, Gulfstream introduced the Gulfstream GIIB. The GIIB had a modified GII fuselage and the GIII wings, complete with winglets. The variant offered weight and performance characteristics similar to the GIII, but with the shorter GII fuselage. Gulfstream completed and delivered approximately 40 GIIBs.

Under Paulson the Savannah work force grew to 2,500 by the spring of 1982. Also in this year, the company’s name changed to Gulfstream Aerospace Corp. to reflect its worldwide scope, and a new plane, the Gulfstream IV, was conceived. The following year, Gulfstream offered 8.8 million shares of stock to the public. In 1985, Chrysler Corp. acquired Gulfstream for $637 million as part of the automaker’s plan to diversify into high-tech industries. This was also the year that Gulfstream first appeared on the Fortune 500 list, at No. 417. Two years later, the 200th and last Gulfstream III was delivered, and the first delivery of a Gulfstream IV took place. The GIV was the first jet in business aviation to have an all-glass cockpit. In 1989 Chrysler decided to sell Gulfstream, and Paulson teamed with Forstmann Little & Co. â€" a private equity firm specializing in leveraged buyouts â€" and bought Gulfstream back.

1990s

The decade that followed the 1989 repurchase was a time of significant advancements for Gulfstream. The company signed a five-year contract with NetJets in 1994. It completed the Gulfstream V Integration Test Facility and rolled out the GV â€" the first ultra-long range business jet â€" in 1995. The opening of a $16 million Savannah service center with 136,000 square feet (12,630 m²) of hangar space followed in 1996. In 1997, Gulfstream began the simultaneous manufacture of two aircraft models â€" the GIV-SP and the GV. Within a few months of the GV’s first delivery in June 1997, it set nearly 40 city-pair and/or speed and distance records, and its development team was awarded the 1997 Robert J. Collier Trophy, the highest honor in aeronautics or astronautics in North America. In 1998, Gulfstream purchased K-C Aviation from Kimberly-Clark Corp. for $250 million, which had operations in Dallas, Appleton, Wisconsin, and Westfield, Massachusetts.

2000s

At the end of the 1990s, General Dynamics purchased Gulfstream, and it opened a $5.5 million aircraft refurbishment and completions support facility in Savannah in 2000. In 2001, it acquired Galaxy Aerospace and with it, the mid-size Astra SPX and super mid-size Galaxy, which were later rebranded the Gulfstream G100 and Gulfstream G200, respectively. Also in 2001, Gulfstream purchased four U.S. maintenance facilities in Dallas, Las Vegas, Minneapolis, and West Palm Beach, Florida. Those service centers, along with a Gulfstream facility in Westfield, Massachusetts, formed General Dynamics Aviation Services, which maintained and repaired Gulfstream and other business-jet aircraft.

In 2002, Gulfstream renamed its products, using Arabic numerals instead of Roman numerals to differentiate its aircraft. At the time, the company’s lineup included the ultra long-range Gulfstream G550 and G500, the long-range Gulfstream G400, the mid-range Gulfstream G300 and G200, and the high-speed G100. 2002 was also the year that Gulfstream introduced its Airborne Product Support aircraft, a specially equipped G100. It is used to deliver parts and provide any-time service to Gulfstream customers in North America and the Caribbean who are operating aircraft under warranty.

In 2003, Gulfstream acquired a service center at the London-Luton Airport, the first Gulfstream-owned service center to be operated outside the United States. Also, in 2003, the long-range Gulfstream G450 was introduced. The large-cabin, mid-range G350 was presented a year later. In 2004, Gulfstream was awarded the 2003 Collier Trophy for the development of the G550. It was the second time in less than a decade that Gulfstream had won the award. The G550 is the first civil aircraft to receive a Type Certificate issued by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) that includes an Enhanced Vision System (EVS) as standard equipment on an aircraft. The aircraft also contained the first cockpit to incorporate PlaneView®, an integrated avionics suite featuring four 14-inch (36 cm) liquid crystal displays in landscape format.

In 2005, Gulfstream began to offer an in-flight internet connection â€" its Broad Band Multi-Link (BBML) system. Gulfstream also designed and developed a means of reducing the sonic boom caused by an aircraft “breaking” the sound barrier â€" the Quiet Spike. The Quiet Spike is a telescopic nose device that softens the effect of the sonic boom by smoothing the pressure wave created by flying at the speed of sound. Gulfstream views lifting the current US supersonic ban as essential for a viable business case for supersonic aircraft.

In 2006, the 12-year production run of the G100 ended, and the Gulfstream G150 entered service to take its place. The G150 was the first business jet to be certified by the FAA for Stage 4, the industry’s most stringent noise standards. Also in 2006, Gulfstream announced plans to expand its manufacturing and service facilities in Savannah. The seven-year, $400 million Long-Range Facilities Master Plan included the creation of a new 624,588-square-foot (58,030 m²) service center, an independent fuel farm, a 42,600-square-foot (3,960 m²) paint hangar and the addition of a new Sales and Design Center. As a result of the expansion, employment at the facility was expected to grow by some 1,100 jobs. To meet the immediate need for engineering office space, Gulfstream opened a Research and Development Center (RDC). The RDC accommodates approximately 750 technical and engineering employees.

In April, 2007 Gulfstream broke ground for a new business-jet manufacturing building at its headquarters in Savannah. The following month, the company signed a nine-year lease with North Point Real Estate for a second Research and Development Center. The RDC II consists of an office building, which can accommodate 550 employees, and a laboratory building, which is designed for 150 employees and test equipment used in Gulfstream’s research and development work. Gulfstream completed the new Sales and Design Center addition in June and officially opened the first phase of the new Savannah Service Center in August.

In 2007, Gulfstream tested its Synthetic Vision-Primary Flight Display (SV-PFD) and EVS II together for the first time. The SV-PFD is an enhancement to the Gulfstream PlaneView flight displays. It features a three-dimensional color image of terrain overlaid with the primary flight display instrument symbology, which are arranged on the screen to create a large-view area for terrain. By early 2008, the FAA had certified both EVS II and SV-PFD.

On March 13, 2008, Gulfstream announced the introduction of a new business jet: the Gulfstream G650. The G650 offers the longest range, fastest speed, largest cabin and most advanced cockpit in the Gulfstream fleet. It is capable of traveling 7,000 nautical miles (12,960 km; 8,060 mi) at Mach .85 or will cover shorter distances at a speed of Mach 0.925, making it the fastest civilian aircraft flying. It can climb to 51,000 feet (15,540 m), allowing it to avoid airline-traffic congestion and adverse weather.

On October 5 of the same year, Gulfstream announced another addition to its business-jet fleet: the large-cabin, mid-range Gulfstream G250 (later renamed the Gulfstream G280). It is capable of traveling 3,600 nautical miles (6,670 km; 4,140 mi) at 0.80 Mach and has a maximum operating speed of 0.85 Mach. It can reach its 41,000-foot (12,500 m) initial cruise altitude in 20 minutes and can climb to a maximum altitude of 45,000 feet (13,720 m).

In 2009, the company conducted two powered rollouts one week apart. The Gulfstream G650 officially rolled out of the Savannah manufacturing facility under its own power on September 29, 2009. The G280 followed just one week later.

Both the G650 and the G280 flew before the end of 2009. The G650 took its first flight on November 25, while the G280 went up for the first time on December 11.

2010s

In November 2010, Gulfstream announced an expansion of its Savannah facilities through a $500-million, seven-year plan. The growth resulted in 1,000 additional Gulfstream jobs, an increase of more than 15 percent.

In addition to the Savannah expansion, Gulfstream’s sites in Westfield, Massachusetts, USA, and Luton, England, also grew in 2011. In October, Gulfstream announced an expansion of its service center at the Barnes Regional Airport in Westfield, Massachusetts, that will result in 100 additional Gulfstream jobs, a nearly 80 percent increase over the size of Gulfstream’s Westfield workforce. The Luton, England, service center also relocated to a 75,000-square-foot, more modern hangar. The hangar and accompanying office area nearly doubles space at the site, allowing Gulfstream Luton technicians to service Gulfstream’s entire fleet, including the all-new G650, the company’s flagship aircraft.

Gulfstream suffered a major setback on April 2, 2011, when one of its G650 ultra long-range business jets crashed on the runway at Roswell, NM, fatally injuring the two test pilots and two flight test engineers on board. The aircraft was conducting a takeoff-performance test during which an engine failure was simulated by reducing the right engine's thrust to idle. The G650 became airborne briefly at a high angle of attack before its right wingtip hit the runway, then slid on the ground and caught fire.

The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) determined the probable cause of the crash was an aerodynamic stall of the aircraft due to a failure to properly develop and validate takeoff speeds, persistent and increasingly aggressive attempts to achieve a V2 speed that was too low and an inadequate investigation of previous uncommanded roll events. Following the crash, Gulfstream raised the V2 speed of the G650. The NTSB accused Gulfstream of withholding information and the use of legal counsel during the investigation, which were denied by the company.

In November 2011, the Gulfstream G650 received its provisional type certificate (PTC) from the FAA. This cleared the way for the company to begin interior completions of the ultra-large-cabin, ultra-long-range business jet in preparation for customer deliveries in the second quarter of 2012, as originally planned.

In January 2011, General Dynamics Aviation Services was rebranded as Gulfstream to simplify its brand identity. Gulfstream now owns and operates nine service centers worldwide, plus one component repair facility.

As of late 2012 there were indications that Gulfstream was close to announcing the design of a quiet supersonic business jet, first drawings of which appeared in December 2012.

Gulfstream employs more than 11,500 people at 12 major locations: Savannah, Ga.; Appleton, Wis.; Brunswick, Ga.; Dallas; Las Vegas, Nev.; Lincoln, Calif.; London, England; Long Beach, Calif.; Mexicali, Mexico; Westfield, Mass.; Sorocaba, Brazil; and West Palm Beach, Fla.

(Sources: Gulfstream Aerospace Archives and “The Legend of Gulfstream” by Jeffrey L. Rodengen)

Government and special mission aircraft

About 200 Gulfstream are used by 35 governments, mainly the G550 : air transports of heads of state and government, airborne early warning, medical evacuation, high-altitude atmospheric research, and intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance.

Products

Current products

Product history

The Grumman Gulfstream I (Model G-159) was a twin-turboprop business aircraft, certificated by the FAA on May 21, 1959

The Grumman Gulfstream II was the first large business jet and basis of the Shuttle Training Aircraft. It had many variants, some still produced today, under the same type certificate :

The new Gulfstream G650 has its own type certificate, approved on September 7, 2012. It should be the same for the new Gulfstream G600 and G500.

Israel Aircraft Industries transferred ownership of the smaller Westwind Astra business jet, approved August 29, 1985 to Gulfstream Aerospace on March 26, 2002. Its derivative Astra SPX, approved January 8, 1996 was then named Gulfstream G100, approved August 9, 2002, and its second derivative Gulfstream G150 was approved on November 7, 2005. The larger IAI Galaxy Type certificate, approved December 16, 1998, was transferred the same day and renamed Gulfstream G200, approved January 16, 2002. It was developed into the Gulfstream G280 which have its own type certificate approved August 30, 2012.

The Gulfstream American Hustler was a prototype business aircraft, which first flew on 11 January 1978, using a turbprop and a turbofan simultaneously. It was developed into prototype military trainer Gulfstream Peregrine 600, first flight 22 May 1981, and the prototype single jet Gulfstream Peregrine, first flight 14 January 1983.

The Sukhoi-Gulfstream S-21 was a projected supersonic business jet.

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